Save Our Earth

important article aimed at people who care about our earth.

United States Native Plant Gardening

Pretty native garden

“Because life is fueled by the energy captured from the sun by plants, it will be the plants that we use in our gardens that determine what nature will be like 10, 20, and 50 years from now.”

Plants grow happily when the soil, temperature, and other environmental conditions are in accordance with their nature. This is why gardening with only native plants is always your best bet for an easy-to-maintain garden. You cannot grow every plant everywhere. The United States is a vast country and home to the most significant Temperate Flora compared with the rest of the world.

Fossil fuel burning, use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and discharge of improperly treated wastewater into the water bodies have caused alarming air, water, and soil pollution levels. There is a need to restore the ecological balance, minimize chemical use, move towards nature. All of this is possible through growing native plants. Native species are easy to propagate, maintain, and they grow abundantly and efficiently in their native habitat, producing oxygen and reducing pollution every moment of the day.

A Selection of US Native Trees:

Red Maple (Acer rubrum):

The tree that beautifies your garden first in the autumn will be the Red Maple with red, orange, and Yellow-colored flowers. Red Maple is native to Florida and Texas. Different suitable cultivars of red maple are Scarlet Sentinel, Shade King, North-wood, Burgundy Bell, Autumn-Flame, Armstrong, and Autumn Radiance.

  • Red maple is a temperate tree, grows well in almost every region of the United States, most abundantly in Central North America and mid-South Climates. Its growth stunted where the temperature goes below -40 degrees Celsius.
  • It requires partial shade to full sunlight to grow (choose the partial shady place in your lawn to grow Acer Rubrum. It can be grown in almost every kind of soil (clayey, salty, acidic, and loamy) but not salty soil.
  • It is elegantly grown in lawns, residential streets, and ornamental gardens. Mainly propagated through seeds (the tree produces seeds in late spring) but can also be raised through stump cuttings. It is recommended to purchase the plant grown from seed to have a strong root system and be true-to-type.
  • It is a deciduous tree and sheds leaves at the end of autumn in preparation for the winters. In the spring, new leaves come out to replace the foliage shed.
  • No need for annual pruning
  • Irrigation is likely not needed after the plant is established.
  • These plants should not need additional fertilization as long as the leaves are left to decompose naturally over the roots.
  • The average lifespan of Red Maple is 100 years.

Cottonwood/Poplar tree:

  • Black poplars: Populus deltoids (commonly known as Necklace poplar native to eastern North America’s species) and Populus fremontii (locally called as Fremont’s cottonwood) western North America’s species)Balsam Poplars: best grow in the North American regions with cool temperate climates.
  • The Poplar tree plays a vital role in the phytoremediation process and can be raised as a tree and a bush.
  • It can be used in some constructed wetland filtration systems and is commercially grown to remediate soils polluted with heavy metals and for the treatment of sewage wastewater.
  • You can very quickly grow a poplar tree in your garden by planting a cutting taken from a one-year-old poplar tree stem, it has vigorous growth habits, and its canopy can spread to 30 feet in 9-10 years.

White Oak (Quercus alba):

Oak is the National tree of the United States of America. The White Oak is quite well adapted to much of the US climate conditions and is one of the prominent hardwood trees native to North Central America. It is called white oak due to the whiteish color of the underside of the leaves. The large, wide canopy and thousands of leaves are good for adding oxygen to the environment and absorbing high concentrations of CO2.

Star Fruit Tree (Averrhoa carambola):

It is a tropical to semi-tropical climate tree, widely grown in Central America, South America, Hawaii, and Caribbean regions. It can be raised as a tree and a bush depending upon the space available in the garden, produces leaves and fruit (its fruit is edible, rich in Vitamin C, 7% carbohydrates, 1% protein/fruit) throughout the year. Irrigate the young tree every 4-5 days, and then weekly irrigation is enough.

American Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua):

The Sweetgum tree (also nicknamed “alligator-wood”) is one of the most popular ornamental trees (recognized by its five-cornered star-shaped leaves of reddish-orange color) of the warm temperate regions of Eastern North America and Tropical areas of Mexico and Central America. You can maintain the young plant of sweetgum into a medium-sized, spreading, or a heightened narrow canopy tree depending upon the space available in your garden.

Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida):

When you own a small garden in your house, the flowering dogwood would be a good choice for you. It is a beautiful white/pink colored flowering tree, produced in the spring and reddish-pink foliage during the autumn.

Cornus Florida is native to South Central United States, grows best in slightly acidic soils, requires partially shaded conditions, and can grow 33 feet tall.

It is very easy to grow and propagate a dogwood plant; you can easily grow it from seed or shoot at home. The average life span of a dogwood tree is almost 60 years.

  • Locally available cultivars are Gulf Coast Pink, Plena (Anthracnose resistant), Jean’s Appalachian Snow, and Kay’s Appalachian Mist (both are Powdery Mildew Resistant), Purple Glory (Stem Canker resistant).

Tree planting instructions for home gardeners:

  • The average life span of most trees is not less than 30 years, so the correct placement for your tree is critical to its long-term success and your long-term happiness.
  • Consider the tree’s mature size and sunlight requirements when choosing a site.
  • Dig a hole at least a foot wider than the tree’s root mass and about as deep as the existing root mass.
  • Don’t plant the tree too deeply in the hole. Every plant has a depth at which it ikes to grow. Nursery-bought trees often have too much soil piled on top of the roots due to cultivating around the plant. It is essential that you clear the excess soil off of the top of the roots before deciding on a final planting depth.
  • More trees die from planting too deep than too shallow, so always err on the side of too high.
  • Once the tree is standing in the hole at the correct depth, backfill the hole with friable soil and perhaps some aged compost.
  • Use the excavated soils to form a slight soil berm around the plant to allow more effective watering for the first growing season.

A Selection of US Native Flowering Plants:

Rose:

Rosa Carolina, which is native to eastern North America, can be found in all the states and provinces of the US. Rosa gymnocarpae, which is native to western North America, can be found in almost all the states and regions of the US also.

How to propagate a Rose:

  • Take rose stem cutting (in late Jan or start of Feb) of 8-12 inches in length and pencil thickness from the parent plant.
  • Place the bottom end in any available growth mixture, give it sunlight and keep it moist.
  • Apply natural fertilizers as needed to avoid chlorosis.

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus):

Helianthus is a genus of hundreds of species cultivated commercially for ornamental and phytoremediation features. In gardens, annual species are grown, including:

  • Helianthus annuus: “American Giant, Giant Sun-gold, Yellow Disk, Solar Eclipse, and Autumn Beauty” are locally available cultivars in the local plant nurseries. Propagated through seeds, they do not demand spectacular conditions to grow but need full sunlight.
  • They are planted in a constructed wetland for the filtration of heavy metals like Ni, Cd, Cu, etc.

Cone Flower (Echinacea purpurea):

It is an excellent ornamental flowering plant of temperate regions that flowers throughout spring and autumn. Once established, it is a drought-tolerant plant that loves partial shade and grows well in moist to dry soils. It is successfully propagated through seeds or clump, or root cuttings. “Giant Ruby” is one of the popular cultivars grown widely.

Coneflower is a medicinal plant used to treat throat infections, stomach cramps, coughs, snake bites, etc.

Blanket flower (Gaillardia spp.):

A species-rich genus “Gaillardia” contains numerous traditional and selective cultivars to beautify your garden with their red, pink, orange, yellow, and purple colored flowers. Almost all the species are native to the USA, for example;

  • Gaillardia amblyodon (the Maroon blanket flower)
  • Gaillardia aristata (common Gaillardia)
  • Gaillardia multiceps (onion blanket flower, commonly grown in rock gardening)
  • Gaillardia pulchella (Fire-wheel, grows best in North America climatic conditions)

Flower planting instructions for home gardeners:

  • Late summer to early fall is the best time to grow cuttings. Dip the bottom end in a rooting medium or keep dipped in a glass of water and change the water daily.
  • Once the cutting develops roots, then plant it in a suitable environment.
  • Annuals and perennials need well-drained and somewhat porous soil for root establishment.
  • In pots, try to add compost material and soil at the ratio of 1:2 and shelter them to survive during frost periods.
  • Water new planting according to need. Feel the soil beneath the plant. If it is moist, it is good; if dry, it needs water. Pretty simple.

A Selection of US Native Shrubs:

American Canberrybush (Viburnum trilobum):

It’s a beautiful, deciduous shrub that produces white, small flowers in June-July that cover the whole shrub presenting a very fresh look. It can be easily grown through softwood cuttings in spring. The advantage of planting the Viburnum is that it produces leaves that clean up the volatile organic compounds in the air, release oxygen, and in the summer, has beautiful flowers. No need to add chemical fertilizers; just adding a few kitchen scraps from time to time will be enough for a healthy Cranberry.

White Sage (Salvia apiana):

White sage also called “sacred sage,” is an evergreen shrub native to southwestern regions of the US. It requires full sunny conditions and well-drained, sandy loam soil to grow correctly and flower at the appropriate time. If your garden soil is not suitable for this shrub, you can grow it in planter boxes to avoid overgrowth, soil problems and add structures (in the form of colorful planter boxes containing green shrubs) to your garden.

Hydrangea:

Hydrangea (grown for its large ornamental flowerheads of beautiful colors) is a genus of many species, either evergreen or deciduous native to a wide range of climates in America. It is either grown as a shrub (spread rapidly, making colonies through colonization) or may become a small tree if maintained. It likes to grow under the canopy of hardwood, so you can create a Focal Point in the garden using a specimen tree and Hydrangea around its trunk. The locally cultivated species of Hydrangea in the North and Southern regions of the US are:

  • Smooth/White Hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescence): “Annabelle” is the best cultivar; most cold-hardy and Hydrangea roots have medicinal importance.
  • Oak-leaf Hydrangea (Hydrangea quercifolia): flowers are creamy-white when they emerge, turn to pink as they grow, and finally attain brown color in the autumn.
  • Blue Hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla): has naturalized in the Americas, deciduous, “Mop-head and Lace-cap” are the locally available main cultivars.
  • Silver-leaf Hydrangea (Hydrangea radiata): like the cool and moist climate, less tolerant to the heat and shade, produce silvery-white flowers, “Samantha and Greer” are the locally available cultivars.

References:

Mastuura, M. I. S. F.; Dias, F. R. T.; Picoli, J. F.; Lucas, K. R. G.; Castro, C.; Hirakuri, M. H. (2017). “Life-cycle assessment of the soybean-sunflower production system in the Brazilian Cerrado” (PDF). The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 22 (4): 492–501. doi:10.1007/s11367-016-1089-6. S2CID 112613303.

Encheva, J. Christov, M and Shindrova, P. Developing Mutant Sunflower Line (Helianthus Annuus L.) By Combined Used Of Classical Method With Induced Mutagenesis and Embryo Culture Method. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science [accessed October 15, 2014]; 14(4):397-404

Awtry-Smith, Marilyn J. The Symbol of Spiritualism: The Sunflower. Reprinted from the New Educational Course on Modern Spiritualism. Appendix IV in Talking to the Other Side: A History of Modern Spiritualism and Mediumship, ed. by Todd Jay Leonard. ISBN 0-595-36353-9.

Denk, Thomas; Grimm, Guido W.; Manos, Paul S.; Deng, Min; Hipp, Andrew L. (2017), Gil-Pelegrín, Eustaquio; Peguero-Pina, José Javier; Sancho-Knapik, Domingo (eds.), “An Updated Infrageneric Classification of the Oaks: Review of Previous Taxonomic Schemes and Synthesis of Evolutionary Patterns,” Oaks Physiological Ecology. Exploring the Functional Diversity of Genus Quercus L., Springer International Publishing, 7, pp. 13–38, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69099-5_2, ISBN 978-3-319-69098-8

Liquidambar styraciflua: a renewable source of shikimic acid. Liza B. Enrich, Margaret L. Scheuermann, Ashley Mohadjer, Kathryn R. Matthias, Chrystal F. Eller, M. Scott Newman, Michael Fujinaka and Thomas Poon, Tetrahedron Letters, 2008, volume 49, pages 2503–2505, doi:10.1016/j.tetlet.2008.02.140

Tuell, J. K., Fiedler, A. K., Landis, D., & Isaacs, R. (2014). Visitation by wild and managed bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) to eastern US native plants in conservation programs. Environmental Entomology, 37(3), 707-718.

Padullés Cubino, J., Cavender‐Bares, J., Hobbie, S. E., Hall, S. J., Trammell, T. L., Neill, C., … & Groffman, P. M. (2019). Contribution of non‐native plants to the phylogenetic homogenization of US yard floras. Ecosphere, 10(3), e02638.

Bradley, B. A., Early, R., & Sorte, C. J. (2015). Space to invade? Comparative range infilling and potential range of invasive and native plants. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 24(3), 348-359.

Climate Change

An area’s climate is made up of many environmental aspects. Climate change is not simply a change in one specific aspect of the climate but can be better considered as the overall condition of all elements tied to the environment. These things may be temperature changes, sea-level changes, seasonal shifts in weather patterns and plant and animal life changes, and general biodiversity changes of an area. Climate change can often be more significant in cities as they consume 78% of the world’s energy and produce more than 60% greenhouse gases, yet account for less than 25% of the Earth’s surface.

Greenhouse Gasses

To adequately discuss climate change, we need to define greenhouse gas. The term greenhouse gasses has been coined to mean any combination of gasses like water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and methane that absorb radiation, trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere and help contribute to the greenhouse effect. Most greenhouse gasses come from burning fossil fuels and tend to raise the overall temperature of this planet.

Deforestation

Deforestation or the general removal of plant life from the surface of the Earth is one of the leading causes of climate change. Trees and other plants are the “Carbon Sinks,” which means they absorb all the carbon dioxide and other toxic volatile compounds released by living and non-living things. Trees are like natural air conditioning units, as they transpire more than 90% of the water they absorb. This moisture forms clouds and lowers the regional temperature. You can physically feel the extreme difference by simply walking through a wooded area versus walking through a bare dirt or solid surface area.
We humans understand that the plants and forests of this Earth are integral for food, livelihood, water, climate, and health. Yet, during the years 2001-2015, more than 300 million trees have been removed (tree cover nearly equal to the size of India). Deforestation of an area can raise the temperature of that area by up to 40 degrees Fahrenheit. The recent (2020) report of NOAA (National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration) showed that the ocean and land temperature has been increasing at an average rate of .32˚F per decade since 1981.

Consuming Too Much and Wasting Too Much

There is a vast difference in how this planet’s inhabitants consume and use resources. Some inhabitants consume and waste vast quantities of resources, while others use very little and barely have enough to survive. Developed countries produce more waste than developing countries because the per capita consumption of plastic, fossil fuels, metals, and all other necessities is more. The developed and consumptive countries are often the core cause of the deforestation of many of the underdeveloped countries. Humans in the more developed countries throw away billions of tons of food each year, while over a million people die of hunger each year. There must be a more efficient way to manage our resources.

According to the UN world food program’s report, there are 957 million people in the world who do not have sufficient food and are below the poverty line. If the population continues to increase at the rate it has been, we will most certainly run ourselves out of natural resources in the not-so-distant future.

Generating more Power

The burning of fossil fuels is one of the biggest contributors to greenhouse gasses and thus one of the biggest contributors to our climate changes. The consumption of fossil fuels is so inherently intertwined with our daily lives that it is tough to imagine any sort of existence of our species without this grandiose consumption. How can we possibly continue our current trend of industry, technology, and housing without fossil fuels?

Sure, the politicians give a lot of lip service to a multitude of more earth-friendly ways to continue our current practices, but the truth seems to be that we need to consume less and let mother nature heal herself more. We are simply wasting the Earth’s resources rather than efficiently utilizing them and using science to determine our consumption. The low-income and poor communities are often the most adversely affected groups as they live in unstable conditions, in areas where flooding, earthquakes, and land-sliding issues are common. They usually do not have the financial wherewithal to get out of these areas.

Climate and Air

Climate change is almost always associated with air pollution, and we are quite literally poisoning ourselves with our own pollution. I often find it hard to believe that we humans would take the steps that we do if we all knew and accepted all of the facts relating to our over-consumption and earth pollution. According to the WHO report (October 2018), indoor air pollution causes major respiratory issues among 40% of the world’s population (including 1 billion children under the age of 15).

Effects/Impacts of Climate Change

Hotter Temperature

The overall Earth’s temperature is now 1.1˚C warmer than in the 18th century. Efforts have been made to control this temperature rise, but while some of the Earth has made strides in the right direction, the vast majority of us have not, and the net results have not significantly changed. The rise in temperature affects all living things, including plants, animals, and the microbial life cycles. Nature has made everything in a perfect balance. Mother nature can, and will, balance this planet, with or without us humans. We need to learn how to care for our world before mother nature decides to take us out to fix the balance.

Increased Droughts

Water shortage has become a severe issue in the world. Many areas of the world exist in a state of extreme water shortage and frequent and prolonged droughts. Warm temperatures increase the rate of evaporation, leaving the soil and vegetation short of the life-giving moisture needed to thrive.
Deforestation has altered the rainfall patterns, making many of the already drought-susceptible regions severely drought-sensitive and much drier than what would be needed to sustain vibrant plant life.

Soil Salinity

Many previously fertile lands have become barren and saline due to climate change. Higher temperatures and drier climates tend to dry our soils and significantly increase the effects of erosion. A rise in ocean temperature and sea level and the melting of glaciers and ice shores result in more water flowing into the oceans. This pushes more saltwater onshore from the Bangladesh coastline to Mississippi Delta.

Also, heat stress due to the rise in temperature causes groundwater depletion, resulting in the accumulation of salts in the soil. Australia, California, and sub-Saharan Africa are already severely affected areas.

Health Effects of Climate Change

The unprecedented climate changes brought on by humans have destroyed the atmospheric conditions and are also destroying human health. After the wildfire incident in Florida in 1998, the number of people suffering from asthma, bronchitis, and other respiratory problems has significantly increased. Increasing ratios of ozone, carbon, and nitrogen compounds are the causes of many human health issues. Water-related diseases are have also had a significant deteriorating effect on human health. More than 1 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water.

Worldwide Measures to Control Climate Change

Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement (also called the Paris Climate Accords) is an international agreement on climate change among 196 countries established in 2015 and open for signature on 22 April 2016. Its aims include finding ways for the participating countries to help slow down global climate changes. Working on ways to use technology to lower greenhouse gas emissions without lowering food production and finding ways to finance these strategies could be an essential first step in the process.

As a whole, multi-nation organizations and political committees are typically not the answer to these worldwide dilemmas. Meetings of large groups of overpaid politicians typically find good ways to efficiently line their pockets with more resources and ensure the continuation of their careers but rarely find ways to implement world-changing strategies.

COP (Conference of the parties)

COP is a UNFCC’s (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) decision-making body formed in 1994 to protect the global climate from getting warmer and stabilize the emission of GHGs (greenhouse gasses). It has a total of 197 members that have been meeting every year since 1995 and have successfully arranged 26 meetings so far. The UNFCC’s 2021 meeting, known as CO26, aims to control greenhouse gas emissions by 2030.

Once again, many good ideas but little real action taking place. Frequently, change will come from the many individuals who choose to take personal action versus the few government-run organizations that choose to discuss rather than act.
According to a recent IPPC (International Plant Protection Convention ) report, climatic changes have become irreversible in some areas of the world. Extreme drought and rainfall patterns have ultimately changed the cropping patterns and plant growth patterns of large swaths of the Earth.

NASA’s Role in Climate Change Control

NASA stands for National Aeronautics and Space Administration and is the world’s leader in climate and Earth’s studies. It has 21 spacecraft at this time in the atmosphere that are busy collecting climate data and forwarding this data to numerous other departments worldwide to alert them to take action according to the present conditions. It does not involve policy-making directly.

Global Warming

As the name indicates, “Global Warming” is the process of heating the Earth due to human activities, especially uncontrolled fossil fuel burning and deforestation. These processes release greenhouse gases which remain trapped in the atmosphere causing the elevation in the Earth’s temperature. Pielke Jr, R. A. (2000)

Difference between Global Warming and Climate Change

Climate change is a long-term change in weather patterns (wind patterns, precipitation, humidity, etc.) and atmospheric temperature. At the same time, global warming is the emission and trapping of excessive greenhouse gases, which causes an increase in global temperature. Schneider, S. H. (1989). In short form, you can say that “Climate change is the result of Global warming, and global warming is the result of GHGs.”

Effects of Global Warming (similar to climate change)

  • A rise in average atmospheric temperature
  • Extreme weather events (hottest summers, mild winters, droughts, etc.)
  • Melting of glaciers
  • Acidification of oceans
  • Soil salinization
  • Respiratory, cancerous, and other diseases to humans
  • Biodiversity and ecosystem disturbance

Conclusion

We can all do our role to help slow down the climate change that we humans have caused. No one part of this world is entirely to blame, nor is there any one part that can fully fix our problem. Each and every one of us should be concerned enough for our health and the health and well-being of our heirs to do our best to reduce our consumption, reduce fossil fuel usage, reduce the use of chemicals, and increase the amount of plant growth and forestation in our communities and on our properties. Consider that if we don’t step in and make a difference, it is likely that mother nature will step in at some point and do it for us.

References:

  • Tol, R. S. (2009). The economic effects of climate change. Journal of economic perspectives, 23(2), 29-51.
  • Haines, A., & Patz, J. A. (2004). Health effects of climate change. Jama, 291(1), 99-103.
  • Short, F. T., & Neckles, H. A. (1999). The effects of global climate change on seagrasses. Aquatic Botany, 63(3-4), 169-196.
  • Oerlemans, J. (2001). Glaciers and climate change. CRC Press.
  • Dyurgerov, M. B., & Meier, M. F. (2000). Twentieth-century climate change: evidence from small glaciers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(4), 1406-1411.
  • Yagiz, A. K., Cakici, M., Aydogan, N., Omezli, S., Yerlikaya, B. A., Ayten, S., … & Haverkort, A. J. (2020). Exploration of Climate Change Effects on Shifting Potato Seasons, Yields and Water Use Employing NASA and National Long-Term Weather Data. Potato Research, 63(4).
  • Anenberg, S. C., Bindl, M., Brauer, M., Castillo, J. J., Cavalieri, S., Duncan, B. N., … & West, J. J. (2020). Using satellites to track indicators of global air pollution and climate change impacts: Lessons learned from a NASA‐supported science‐stakeholder collaborative. GeoHealth, 4(7), e2020GH000270.
  • Schneider, S. H. (1989). Global warming: are we entering the greenhouse century.
  • Botkin, D. B., Saxe, H., Araujo, M. B., Betts, R., Bradshaw, R. H., Cedhagen, T., … & Stockwell, D. R. (2007). Forecasting the effects of global warming on biodiversity. Bioscience, 57(3), 227-236.

Organic Gardening Practices

Organic gardening or organic horticulture is the practice and science of growing ornamental plants, vegetables, and fruits utilizing only natural resources from seeding to harvesting. The practice specifically prohibits the use of any synthetic chemicals, including fertilizers, pesticides, and plant growth regulators. Rather than resort to harmful chemicals and unnatural treatments, the soils and the plants are maintained naturally and organically from start to finish.

Organic Soil Preparation

Organic Compost

Compost is the partially decomposed product of any kind of organic waste, either animal or plant waste. Compost is the way of the world. Without our interference, composting is the process that all organic materials will go through. It improves soil fertility, increases microbial populations, does no harm to the atmosphere, and is a significant contributor to waste volume reduction.  Compost of farm yard manure and vermicompost (decomposition using worms) are the two most commonly used compost products in the US during soil preparation.

Biofertilizers

Biofertilizers contain living microorganisms that enhance soil microbial population and are efficient in nitrogen fixation and mineralization of phosphorus and potassium. Microbial activity improves soil aeration, it’s water holding capacity, and has been found to increase crop yields by 20%-30%. In organic gardening, you can add biofertilizers instead of resorting to the use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides because biofertilizer also controls insect pests. (Blidariu & Grozea, 2011)

No-Dig Gardening

This is a permaculture approach in which the soil is not cultivated and instead is amended using decomposing organic matter. No-dig gardening operates on the principle of nature, i.e., “Nature is in perfect balance when left alone.” Charles Dowding has practiced No-dig gardening since 1928 in the UK. He has done a lot of work in the field of organic gardening and especially no-dig gardening. He used to add compost as a mulch to grow salad crops (in his market gardens) and those that grow well in undisturbed soils. {Deans, 2001 #394}

Mulching

Mulching is the practice of covering the soil surface with an organic material layer. The material may be fully or partially decomposed. Organic mulch material varies from grass clippings, decomposed leaves, bark chips, wheat or rice straw, compost, peat moss, vermicompost, or cardboard and paper.

Advantages of Mulching:

  • In temperate regions, if mulch is applied in winter, it delays the spring growth in perennial plants, protecting them from spring frosts.
  • It serves to warm the soil, creating optimum conditions for germination.
  • It helps in soil water conservation by suppressing the evaporation process. 
  • It is helpful in suppressing weed growth.
  • It slowly decomposes, adding nutrients to the soil.
  • It helps prevent erosion.

Organic Maintenance Practices

Easy Home-made Remedies for Home Owners

Aphid Control:

Almost every garden plant (ranging from pumpkins, squashes, cucumber, beans, potatoes, etc.) is susceptible to aphid attack. Their nymphs and adults both suck sap from the underside of leaves, develop sooty fungus, hinder photosynthesis, and sometimes transmit viruses in the plants. (Rondon & Horneck, 2006)

Control: Spray (on large trees) or rub (on small plant’s leaves) 1% liquid soap solution. Another method is to prepare an insecticidal solution by mixing one teaspoon of vegetable oil and liquid soap in 2 cups of water to rub on the leaves. 

Snails and Slugs:

Snails and slugs are chewing-type pests that love to eat leafy vegetables, young seedlings, and ornamental and low-growing plants of all types. They attack both the roots and above-ground parts of plants. Damp conditions are their favorite. 

Control: place shallow containers of beer throughout the garden and change the liquid after every three days as it becomes unattractive for the pests. If your garden is small enough, you can simply control them manually by plucking them from the plants. Otherwise, use a 1% or 2% caffeine solution to discourage snails and slugs. (Hollingsworth, Armstrong, & Campbell, 2003)

Weed Control Techniques:

Weeds are unwanted plants that grow tend to grow freely in our gardens, often overtaking the more desireable plants. It is essential to control excessive weed growth if you want your actual crop to grow properly. There are several non-chemical ways to control weeds.

  • Soil Steam Sterilization: cover the soil with a plastic sheet and let it remain as it is for a week or more. The heat produced in the soil will kill the weeds.
  • Manual removal: hoeing, weeding and plowing are age old practices for controlling garden weeds. An added advantage to actual manual weed removal is the relaxing effect of spending time in your garden. It also gives us time to check on our plants for any disease or pest attacks and make compost of the weed plants.
  • Crop Rotation: crop rotation is not usually such an issue with small garden owners, but rotating the location of our crops will allow the different plants to use the soils most effectively and let the soil recover. 
  • Biological control: weed seed predators, bio-herbicides, and grazing animals are all biological control agents. Many of us have been conditioned to reach for chemical treatments first, rather than using the time tested, cost effective and earth friendly biological controls. 

Intercropping:

Intercropping is the practice of growing two or more crops in the same place at the same time. The aim is to maximize the utilization of all the available space and resources (mainly water). Careful planning is, however, essential to get the potential benefits of intercropping. Below are examples.

  • Mutualism: is a practice of give and take. For example, Multi-Tier Cropping Systems in which three tiers or levels are made. The upper tier is coconut, the middle one is banana, and the lowest is pineapple, leguminous crops, or seasonal vegetables. Mutualism promotes biodiversity.
  • Pest Management: The use of multiple crops on the same piece of land can be an efficient method of pest control. Both trap crops (the crops that attract pests and save the actual crop from the attack), push-pull cropping (one crop attracts the pests and others repel them to keep a balance in population) are techniques that can be easily adopted in small and large scale farming.
  • Recourse Partitioning: means that the crops competing with each other for water, sunlight, and space would not be grown together. For example, short crops in the shade of tall crops and shallow roots in between deep-rooted crops.

Types of Organic Gardens

Square Foot Gardening:

In SFG, we divide the growing area into Small Squares of usually 30cm and grow as many plants as the square can carry, thus leaving no space for weeds.

  • The advantage of square foot gardening is the maximum utilization of available space, not allowing the weeds to grow or even germinate—a new gardening method in urban areas where space is the major issue.
  • Intensive planting creates a living mulch. In small spaces, it is easy to cover the squares or fence them to protect them from insects, frost, etc. 
  • This smart planting technique eliminates the need for fertilizers as compost can be added every time you re-plant.
  • Companion planting, i.e., planting an insect repellent with the actual crop, is possible in square plantings. You can easily plant a variety of crops in a small quantity for kitchen usage. {Bartholomew, 2013 #396}

Aquaponics:

It combines aquaculture (raising fish in small ponds) with hydroponics (growing food crops such as lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, etc., in water) to produce food. The nutrient-rich aquaculture water is fed to plants in hydroponics, eliminating the need for fertilizers, saving water, and producing no waste. Aquaponics is considered a sustainable source of food production and can be established both as an indoor and outdoor system. (Blidariu & Grozea, 2011)

Xeriscaping:

Xeriscaping is a water-efficient gardening type that reduces or eliminates the need for irrigation. Drought tolerant plants such as cacti and succulents are usually planted in xeriscaping. The aim behind xeriscaping is water conservation by replacing the grassy lawns and high water utilizing plants with drought-tolerant native species, rocks, mulch, and soil. 

Tips for Beginning Organic Gardeners

  • Pick a sunny location: Most vegetables you plant will need full sun, i.e., 8 hours of bright light daily. So it is vital t to select a sunny site when you have decided to start an organic garden.
  • Start small: Most of the time, people start too big and have nothing but developed more problems and chores. So it is advisable to start from 100 feet or 50 sq. ft. It would be enough for a family of 5-6 persons. 
  • Plan ahead: Preparing your garden the season prior to planting using all organic compost is a great way to ensure an easy start in spring.
  • Plant selection: The selection of native plant species is very important to minimize the maintenance requirements, improve biodiversity, and help native plants. 
  • Don’t lose hope and have patience: Mother nature takes time to work, take your time and you and our world will reap the benefits.

References:

Blidariu, F., & Grozea, A. (2011). Increasing the economical efficiency and sustainability of indoor fish farming by means of aquaponics-review. Scientific Papers Animal Science and Biotechnologies, 44(2), 1-8.

Diaz, L. F., De Bertoldi, M., & Bidlingmaier, W. (2011). Compost Science and technology: Elsevier.

Hollingsworth, R. G., Armstrong, J. W., & Campbell, E. (2003). Caffeine as a novel toxicant for slugs and snails. Annals of Applied Biology, 142(1), 91-97.

Lanza, P. (1998). Lasagna Gardening: A New Layering System for Bountiful Gardens: No Digging, No Tilling, No Weeding, No Kidding! : Rodale.

Rondon, S. I., & Horneck, D. A. (2006). Using home remedies to control garden pests.

Tonitto, C., David, M. B., & Drinkwater, L. E. (2006). Replacing bare fallows with cover crops in fertilizer-intensive cropping systems: A meta-analysis of crop yield and N dynamics. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 112(1), 58-72.

Deans, E. (2001). No-dig Gardening; Leaves of Life. HarperCollins.

Ascard, J., Hatcher, P. E., Melander, B., Upadhyaya, M. K., & Blackshaw, R. E. (2007). 10 Thermal weed control. Non-chemical weed management: principles, concepts and technology, 155-175.

Bartholomew, M. (2013). All new square foot gardening: The revolutionary way to grow more in less space (Vol. 4). Cool Springs Press.

McKenney, C., & Terry, R. (1995). The effectiveness of using workshops to change audience perception of and attitudes about xeriscaping. HortTechnology, 5(4), 327-329.

No Dig or No Till Gardening

The basic premise behind no-dig or no-till gardening is to garden in such a way as to not disrupt the life in the soil as it is the natural food source for the plants. This method works hand in hand with and uses many techniques used in lasagna gardening and organic gardening.

How Does it Work?

  • There are millions of microorganisms inhabiting the A Horizon of soil. The A Horizon is the topsoil layer that provides the habitat for the growth of microorganisms and plant roots. Tillage, plowing and digging exposes these microorganisms to the sunlight and results in those beneficial microbes’ death. (Dowding & Holden, 2013)
  • No-Digging means exactly that. You do not dig and disrupt the soil. You instead depend on the microorganisms to keep your soil well-aerated (they create microscopic tunnels/paths for the movement of nutrients plus water). Their respiration activity also adds oxygen to the soil layers.
  • No plowing and other cultivation operations are necessary. Whatever your garden soil structure may be, organic mulching will make it suitable for planting without the need for cultivation. Rather than cultivate, you use the regular application of compost to enrich your soil.
  • Cardboard and or newspaper can be layered to suppress weed growth, conserve soil moisture, and steadily add essential micro and macro-nutrients into the soil. Organic mulch also improves soil aeration.
  • No-Dig gardening can successfully support all kinds of vegetables, annual or perennial flowering plants, and shrubs. The secret is to add compost each year during the months of Jan-Feb to avoid needing to use harmful synthetic chemicals to control weeds and fertilize.

How to Get Started with No-Dig Gardening?

Site Selection

The most important thing to be considered after you have decided to do no-dig gardening is the appropriate site selection. Choosing a well suited location in your yard can be a great starting point.

Some important things to consider when choosing your site:

  • Consider the history of your site: If you know the site, you might know it’s history. Find a spot that has a long history of plant growth with very little human disturbance and you will be well on your way to a good start. You don’t want a spot that has been compacted by vehicles or equipment.
  • Consider the sun exposure: Note the amount of sun that your site receives during the day. Full sun is great for vegetables, but shrubs and perennials may prefer a bit of shade.
  • Take a soil test: An accurate soil test will give you a good idea of what sort of plants your garden will support and what types of organic matter you might want to add to support those plants. Choosing a spot that is nutrient rich will make your first few years of gardening much easier. Also, the acidity and alkalinity level of soil decides the nutrient uptake and absorption rate by the plant roots.

Decide What to Grow

You can grow any type of plant or crop that you desire in your no-till garden, but most people consider this type of gardening ideally suited for vegetables or annual flowers. We usually think about using no-dig gardening for these type of plants because historically, we would till up our gardens every spring before planting them. All of these no-till techniques can also be used for perennial or shrub gardens.

Decide what type of compost you will use

Organic compost can be made from almost any available organic material that you may have around the house. This collected organic material can be layered on the garden in fall (the lasagna method) or it can be mixed and composted all year-round to create heaps of compost that can be spread on the garden. If you live out in the country, you may be lucky enough to have animal waste readily available, but if not, you still have plenty of options.

  • Plant waste such as leaves and stems of dead plants
  • Kitchen, and home waste such as paper, leftover food, cuttings, etc.
  • Field waste such as wheat, rice and barley straw, etc.
  • Wood scraps such as sawdust and wood chips.

Preparing your compost

If you choose the lasagna method, it is fairly easy. You simply apply layers of paper, cardbord or wood waste intersprersed with layers of organic materials and let it decompose on it’s own. Leave it on the garden over the winter months and then plant into it in spring.

If you choose to create a compost pile, collecting and preparing compost is not a one day project, it is more like an every day project. Once you start thinking like a composter, you will find more and more organic matter that can be used in your garden.

You will need an area to collect the everyday things that will be used in your compost. Many people might use a box or container to hold their compost. It needs to be big enough to hold a good amount and it needs to be in an area that is easy to wrok. The compost will need to be turned to create the nice organic material that you want for your garden.

It’s best to chop the material before dumping it into your compost area to help speed up the compost process.

Once you experience how easy it is to make compost on your own, you will never have enough. You may want to keep two to three piles or boxes filled all year round.

The Lasagna Method – broken down

While the below list names specifics, feel free to use whatever organics you have available. The important thing is getting new and healthy nutrients into the ground in a natural manner.

  • Lay down a layer of newspaper, cardboard or wood chips that will act as a natural weed growth suppressor/ground cover and completely decompose within 5-6 weeks.
  • Above the cardboard paper layer, the second layer will be leaf litter, wheat straw, rice straw or grass clippings. This layer acts as a water-absorbent, and can be several inches thick.
  • The next layer should be several inches of well rotten (aged) farmyard manure, kitchen waste or any other easily decomposed and soft material. This will be the layer that would directly support the plant root growth.
  • The subsequent layers of field waste, stem and branches can be added if you want to raise the bed’s height in your Lasagna Garden.
  • Give your lasagna at least 3-4 months to decompose and then plant right into it.
  • Do this year after year and your soil will become very rich and soft over time.

No-Dig Gardening Benefits

  • Water conservation: Water availability should be a major concern for every gardener. “Save as much as you can” is the strategy behind no-dig farming/gardening. Organic mulching and no-tillage (not disrupting soil to expose it to the sun that will cause moisture evaporation) conserve soil moisture more efficiently and hold irrigation water more precisely.
  • Improved soil fertility: Anything that can be done to avoid using harmful synthetic herbicides and fertilizers in our soil will benefit the earth. By using the above listed methods, you can have completely healthy and happy soild without using any harmful products whatsoever. Organic mulching improves not only the organic matter content of the soil but also assists microorganism’s growth. The slow-release of nutrients is a beneficial process for the plants to utilize both mobile and immobile nutrients (in well-plowed soils, these nutrients are moved either to the surface or below the root zone, making them unavailable for the plants).
  • Biodiversity conservation: Not disturbing the natural habitat of beneficial insects, birds, and plants, by avoiding herbicides, insecticides, fertilizers, and other synthetic chemicals will eventually lead to biodiversity safeguarding.
  • Environmental pollution reduction: Instead of wasting the home, kitchen, field, animal industry, food processing industries, and plant leftovers, using them in food production and soil fertility conservation will reduce environmental pollution. In this age where we face the problem of food and water shortage, it is best not to waste even a single thing that could be beneficial for the soil and eventually to nature conservation. (Kingsley, Townsend, & Henderson‐Wilson, 2009)
  • Shifting back toward nature: Historically families grew their own food. Nowadays, we get our food from factories and stores. The more natural we can make the process, the better it is for our earth. Lasagna Garden establishment is a non-Mechanized Garden establishment process where you do need any machine from soil preparation to crop harvest. (Raymond, Diduck, Buijs, Boerchers, & Moquin, 2019)

References:

Dowding, C., & Holden, P. (2013). Organic gardening: the natural no-dig way: Green Books.

Kingsley, J. Y., Townsend, M., & Henderson‐Wilson, C. (2009). Cultivating health and wellbeing: members’ perceptions of the health benefits of a Port Melbourne community garden. Leisure studies, 28(2), 207-219.

Lanza, P. (1998). Lasagna Gardening: A New Layering System for Bountiful Gardens: No Digging, No Tilling, No Weeding, No Kidding! : Rodale.

Raymond, C. M., Diduck, A. P., Buijs, A., Boerchers, M., & Moquin, R. (2019). Exploring the co-benefits (and costs) of home gardening for biodiversity conservation. Local Environment, 24(3), 258-273.

Natural Control of Garden Plant Diseases

Plants and diseases go side by side; you cannot manage a one hundred percent disease-free garden even when you are doing everything right. For sustainable and environment-friendly farming, we have to shift towards the natural means of controlling diseases and insects. 

Non-Chemical Control of Common Garden Plant Diseases:

Chemical control of trouble-causing disease might seem quick, cheap, and easy to adopt, but the long term damage those chemicals do to the soil, air and underground water cannot be ignored. Biological, cultural, and mechanical control are enough to control most diseases commonly found among garden plants. Natural control is long-termed, beneficial for the soil, plants, and environment.

Physical/Cultural Control:

“Prevention is much easier than treatment.” A healthy soil, well maintained and the right choice of plants and plant species are the most critical factors in keeping the disease away from your garden. 

Crop Rotation:

As the name indicates, rotate your crops. Do not plant the same vegetables/plants every season in the same beds. It is used to control certain soil-borne plant diseases in which the pathogenic organism resides in the soil to survive the unfavorable conditions. They obtain their food from live plants. When a crop is rotated, and the pathogen does not find its food, it cannot multiply, and thus, its population crashes.

For example, if you plant tomatoes in one season, grow some annuals in the next season. It will allow you to grow a crop off and on without the attack of any serious disease and spending additional money on their control. 

Appropriate Irrigation Practices: 

Most pathogenic fungal spores, foliar nematodes, and bacteria require one drop of water on the leaf surface to penetrate it, i.e., dry leaf surface area does not let the pathogenic spores enter it. 

Overhead irrigation, either through water cannons or sprinklers, wet the foliage of plants and creates a favorable environment for the pathogens to grow. On the other hand, drip irrigation or furrow irrigation drops water on the soil surface near the plant’s roots, preventing the wetting of foliage. This prevents the plants from foliage diseases. 

However, the fungal spores of powdery mildew do not germinate on a wet surface in Roses. That is why rose growers keep the foliage misted during the severe attack season. (Trigiano & Gray, 1999)

Tillage Practices:

The pathogens can survive either in the soil or in the litter/fallen leaves/stubbles. Cultural practices like plowing, removing fallen leaves, and previous crop stubbles decrease the 60% chances of disease attack because the spores, eggs would be exposed to the air and would not germinate or hatch. 

For example, Sclerotia’s spores survive only for one year in the soil. When proper crop rotation is practiced, it will eliminate its spores from the soil. 

Organic Mulching: 

Mulching is a practice of covering the soil surface with organic material such as compost, leaf manure, wheat or rice straw, Vermicompost, etc., to minimize water loss through evaporation. Mulching has a clear role in controlling the spread of disease. It stops the mobility of spores within the soil, releases beneficial microbes into the soil that kills the pathogenic microbes, and prevents the spread of disease. 

Mulching plays an indirect role in the control of diseases. Whether it is alive or partially decomposed mulch, it does never involve directly controlling any disease-causing mechanism or pathogen. 

Adopt Good Sanitation Practices:

Good sanitation is crucial for all types of gardens but most importantly, in the vegetable garden. It involves: 

  • The annual trimming and pruning of plants to remove the diseased or dead leaves and branches.
  • Keep the soil clean; no plant debris and weeds should be present within/near plants.
  • Check plants regularly to keep track of and detect the attack of disease or insects. 
  • Properly disinfect all the garden equipment before and after use.
  • Preferably, select the disease-resistant varieties of plants, plant at the right time.

Quick Solutions to Gardens Plant’s Diseases: 

Powdery Mildew and Blackspot in Roses:

The appearance of white power on the leaves first and then on the shoots and remaining parts of the plant. It is a fungal disease caused by Podosphaera panosa. In the black spot, black-colored fungus grows on leaves, stops photosynthesis, and severely reduces the plant vigor. Diplocarpon rosae causes it. Both diseases attack in spring when moisture is high.

Take two teaspoons of baking soda, half teaspoon of any liquid soap, 2 quarts of water, mix well, pour in a spray bottle, and mist on the plant before the symptoms show.

Garlic Soup for all kinds of Bacteria and Fungi:

 Common garden plants like tulip, peony, chrysanthemum, lemon, guava, etc., are all susceptible to and attacked by bacteria and fungi when environmental conditions are favorable. “Garlic Soup” is a natural remedy, prepared by grinding two cloves or 4-5 leaves of garlic, add one-quart of water into it, and blend for six minutes. Strain the mixture, add 1/8 teaspoon of liquid soap, and store it in an airtight bottle. Whenever you have to spray it, take out 1 part garlic soup, mix ten parts of water and spray it on sick leaves. Garlic leaves and cloves have been scientifically proven to have disease-preventing properties. (Slusarenko, Patel, & Portz, 2008)

Biological Fungicide:

Biological fungicide utilizes the “Bacillus subtilis” as a control in stopping the fungi from producing spores. This naturally occurring bacteria is present in both our soil and the human gut, where it interferes with fungal spore/disease destruction. It controls anthracnose, botrytis, black spot, early blight, etc. It is widely available in the market, manufactured, and sold by different brands. Bacillus subtilis also has growth-promoting properties. (Wang, Zhao, Shen, Jing, & Zhang, 2018) 

Remedy for Fungal Headaches:

Plant pathologists have recommended an “Aspirin” solution to control fungal diseases such as powdery mildew, rust, black spot, etc., in vegetables (tomato, beans, etc.) and flowering annuals. Take two tablets of uncoated aspirin (650 mg total), mix in 1 quart of water, and spray on the leaves. It will harm only the pathogenic fungi and not the beneficial insects and plants. (Senaratna, Touchell, Bunn, & Dixon, 2000)

Control of Disease-Causing Insects:

Protection of Scented Herbs-Controlling the Creepy Crawlers:

Scented garden plants such as lavender, basil, rose, mint, wormwood, sage, tansy, rosemary, etc., are often attacked by leafhoppers, aphids, mites, cabbage loppers, cucumber beetle, etc. You can make a quick and easy brew to control all through one. Take a few leaves of basil, crush them gently, add them to a net sack, place the sack in a bottle of at least half gallon water, and expose it to the sun for a few days to brew it. After that, remove the solid (sack along with basil leaves) from the bottle and store it for spray as an insecticide whenever you need it. 

Note: Dilute it with 1/8 teaspoon of liquid soap before using.

Controlling Aphids and Spider Mites:

Plant scientists at Purdue University recommended a homemade remedy to control aphids and spider mites that can harm many garden plants. Take two cups of wheat flour, ¼ cup of buttermilk, and mix in 1.5-2 gallons of water.

Note: always spray in the morning (when the temperature is below 29 degrees Celsius) to avoid leaf sunburned.

Controlling Japanese Beetles:

Japanese beetles kept gardeners worried for many years. They are chewing and can eat the whole garden if not controlled. Take 10-20 leaves of Delphinium, add one gallon of water and blend well. (Ladd Jr, Jacobson, & Buriff, 1978)

References:

Ladd Jr, T., Jacobson, M., & Buriff, C. (1978). Japanese beetles: extracts from neem tree seeds as feeding deterrents. Journal of economic entomology, 71(5), 810-813.

Senaratna, T., Touchell, D., Bunn, E., & Dixon, K. (2000). Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) and salicylic acid induce multiple stress tolerance in bean and tomato plants. Plant Growth Regulation, 30(2), 157-161.

Slusarenko, A. J., Patel, A., & Portz, D. (2008). Control of plant diseases by natural products: Allicin from garlic as a case study. Sustainable disease management in a European context, 313-322.

Trigiano, R. N., & Gray, D. J. (1999). Plant tissue culture concepts and laboratory exercises: CRC press.

Wang, X., Zhao, D., Shen, L., Jing, C., & Zhang, C. (2018). Application and mechanisms of Bacillus subtilis in biological control of plant disease Role of rhizospheric microbes in soil (pp. 225-250): Springer.

Endophytes and Our Gardens

Endophytes are the living organisms, either bacteria or fungi (rarely viruses), that live between the living plant cells. They establish a symbiotic association with the plants without transmitting any disease. Endophytes are known to be present in many plants that have been studied and have been found to enhance the plant’s ability to tolerate abiotic stresses and resistance to pathogens, disease, and insect pest attacks.

Classification of Endophytes

Endophytes are classified into two groups depending upon the physiology and functioning nature. 

Systematic and Non-Systematic Endophytes

Systematic Endophytes (SE)

  • The organisms live within the plant tissues throughout their life cycle and do not harm their host.
  • SE do not change their host for the entirety of their life cycle i.e., their diversity and concentration would not change.                         

Non-Systematic Endophytes (NSE)

  • Non-Systematic endophytes are the organisms that live within the plant tissues as far as the host is providing enough food.
  • NSE harm their host under resource-limited or undesirable conditions, i.e., become pathogenic endophytes.

 Clavicipitaceous and Non-Clavicipitaceous

 Clavicipitaceous Endophytes

  • These endophytes live and proliferate in cool and warm-season grasses.
  • They develop varied relationships with the plants ranging from pathogenic to symbiotic.
  • Improve plant biomass
  • Improve drought-tolerance
  • Decrease herbivory (release toxic chemicals that make plants un-appetizing for the predators).
  • Do not cause any disease/harm to the host

Non-Clavicipitaceous Endophytes

  • These endophytes are typically Ascomycota fungi and can live either dependent upon the host plant or independently.
  • They are adapted to colonize both the below ground, above-ground plant tissues.
  • Develop resistance against habitat-specific stresses such as salinity, temperature, and pH, etc.
  • These endophytes have been the most widely researched organisms due to the unusual benefits that they provide to their host plants.

Advantages and Applications of Endophytes

Endophytes are an essential component of Integrated Pest Management due to their eco-friendly nature. They protect plant commodities, inhibit pest attacks, and do no harm to the soil and environment. For example, inoculation of Acromonium Lolli and Acromonium in grass species of Lolium perenne and Festuca is commercially available, giving the grasses tolerance against foliar lawn pests (chinch bugs, armyworms, webworms, etc.).

Endophytes have become a primary concern of all plant-development-related research. Endophytes play an essential role in improving plant yield, combating stresses, inhibiting disease and pest attack through nitrogen fixation, inheriting resistance, and through alkaloid productions, respectively.

Phytoremediation:

Phytoremediation through endophytes is the use of plant-microbe interaction to remediate polluted oil, water, and the atmosphere. 

Phytoremediation of Crude-oil contaminated soils:

Two endophytic bacteria, “Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain BRRI 54 and Acinetobacter strain BRSI 56,” have been inoculated into the two types of grass “Leptochloa fusca and Brachiaria mutica.” The metabolic activity and colonization patterns of endophytic bacteria enhanced the plant growth and the degradation of crude oil for remediating the vegetated soils. Research results showed that the maximum crude oil degradation was achieved through B. mutica compared with the L. fusca. The use of these grasses in lawns and gardens not only absorbs heavy metals from the soil but also filters polluted air through phytoextraction and phyto-absorption. (Fatima, Imran, Amin, Khan, & Afzal, 2016)

Remediation of Saline Soils:

Bioaugmentation of endophytic strains in Helianthus annuus has been studied for its reclamation of saline and Ni-affected soil properties. “P. libanensis TR1, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and Claroideoglomus BEG2210″ are the bacterial strains that were used. The results showed improved plant growth, improved nickel-sodium accumulation potential, and better physiological status. (Ma, Rajkumar, Oliveira, Zhang, & Freitas, 2019)

Agriculture:

Modern agriculture aims at producing better quality crops both in yield and nutrition. 

  • In New Zealand, the attack of Argentine stem weevil on ryegrass has been controlled through the insertion of AR1 and AR37 strains of endophytic bacteria. The additional advantage of this association is that the grass does remain palatable for the livestock. (Fletcher, 1999)
  • The use of living organisms to control and suppress the pest population, diseases, and plant growth is a successful effort towards sustainable agriculture . Bio-inoculated varieties of grasses (ryegrass, Festuca grass species, etc.), evergreen trees (poplar tree) have been introduced in agriculture and forestry to bring innovation in overall agriculture. (Jain & Pundir, 2017)
  • The alarming use of insecticides and pesticides in controlling common garden pests has become a major concern among environmentalists. Because the damage these chemicals are causing to the soil, air, and ecosystem is drastic. In this situation, the introduction of various endophytes having insecticidal properties proved to be efficient. For example, Indole Diterpenes (Insecticide effective against Blowfly weevil), known as nodulisporic acid, is present in wild olive. 

Medicinal Properties:

Bioprospecting has uncovered natural products derived from endophytes. These have anti-parasitic, antimicrobial, insulin, neuro-protective, immune-suppressant, and cytotoxic, and antibiotic properties. (Egan et al., 2016)

  • The alkaloid “Beauvericin” has cytotoxic action against tumor cells found and harvested from the fungus F. oxysporum.
  • “Pestalotiopsis” has resistance against multi-drug resistant tuberculosis Staphylococcus aureus and many other antimicrobial effects.

Plant use Endophytic Fungi in Defense:

Endophytic fungi develop a symbiotic relationship with plants and help to activate the plant’s defense mechanism against herbivores. Endophytes improve the nutrient uptake capability of plants through secondary metabolite production. This alteration in chemical composition aids in discouraging herbivory and non-herbivory damage. (Mengistu, 2020)

Herbivory prevention:

The plants bearing endophytic association are less likely to be damaged by the substantial herbivores. Endophytes control invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores through reduced reproductive rate, avoidance, reduced feeding, and decreased immunity. (Bamisile, Dash, Akutse, Keppanan, & Wang, 2018)

Disadvantages of Endophytes to livestock:

Resistance to fungal infections caused by herbivores provides an environmentally sustainable alternative against pesticides. The result was beneficial for the plants but not for the livestock. The endophytic defense chemicals have reported decreasing pregnancy rates and increased birth issues in livestock, especially in cows. The use of endophytes in the enhancement of yield must be considered before their application. (Gundel, Pérez, Helander, & Saikkonen, 2013)

Q: what plants have endophytes?

A: Endophytes have been found in few evergreen trees and most grass species such as ryegrass, fescue grass, etc. However, the presence in all kinds of plants has not been reported yet. 

Q: Are endophytes harmful?

A: Not all endophytes are harmful, and not all are beneficial. Scientists have characterized the beneficial endophytes as “selective or animal-friendly.”

Q: How do plants obtain endophytes?

A: Endophytes are transmitted through three ways: 1) Vertical Transmission: through infected plant’s seeds. 2) Horizontal transmission: i.e., through sexual spores of infected plants. 3) Mixture of vertical and horizontal life cycles.

Q: What are endophytic algae?

A: Endophytic algae are microscopic organisms that live inside macroscopic seaweeds. For example, Ulvella leptochaeta is an endophytic algae known to enhance its host’s immunity against several diseases. 

Q: Describe the role of endophytes in plants?

 A: Endophytes develop a symbiotic association with their host plants, i.e., they obtain food and shelter from the plants and, in response, develop immunity against pathogens, insects, and diseases and enhance their growth and development.

Q: Are endophytes harmful?

A: Endophytes in fodder are harmful to livestock. However, the native grass species and those that develop without symbiotic association with the beneficial endophytes are not harmful to the plants.

Q: What are bacterial endophytes?

A: Endophytes are the microbial symbionts that live within the plants. They develop tolerance in plants against the abiotic stresses and are responsible for the development of healthy plants. When the plant is healthy, diseases will not attack.

References:

Bamisile, B. S., Dash, C. K., Akutse, K. S., Keppanan, R., & Wang, L. (2018). Fungal endophytes: beyond herbivore management. Frontiers in microbiology, 9, 544.

Egan, J. M., Kaur, A., Raja, H. A., Kellogg, J. J., Oberlies, N. H., & Cech, N. B. (2016). Antimicrobial fungal endophytes from the botanical medicine goldenseal (Hydrastis Canadensis). Phytochemistry Letters, 17, 219-225.

Fatima, K., Imran, A., Amin, I., Khan, Q., & Afzal, M. (2016). Plant species affect colonization patterns and metabolic activity of associated endophytes during phytoremediation of crude oil-contaminated soil. Environmental science and pollution research, 23(7), 6188-6196.

Fletcher, L. (1999). “Non-toxic” endophytes in ryegrass and their effect on livestock health and production. NZGA: Research and Practice Series, 7, 133-139.

Gundel, P. E., Pérez, L. I., Helander, M., & Saikkonen, K. (2013). Symbiotically modified organisms: non-toxic fungal endophytes in grasses. Trends in plant science, 18(8), 420-427.

Jain, P., & Pundir, R. K. (2017). Potential role of endophytes in sustainable agriculture-recent developments and future prospects. Endophytes: biology and biotechnology, 145-169.

Ma, Y., Rajkumar, M., Oliveira, R. S., Zhang, C., & Freitas, H. (2019). Potential of plant beneficial bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in phytoremediation of metal-contaminated saline soils. Journal of hazardous materials, 379, 120813.

Mengistu, A. A. (2020). Endophytes: Colonization, behaviour, and their role in defense mechanism. International Journal of Microbiology, 2020.

What is Bioremediation?

Biological treatment is possible by harnessing plants and microbes’ natural ability to absorb phosphorus, nitrogen, and other nutrients to break down contaminants through a biological process known as bioremediation.  Bioremediation is used to capture and remove contaminants using wetlands and is practiced worldwide.

Biofiltration for Wastewater Treatment

Biofiltration was introduced in 1893 in England as a filter for wastewater treatment. Since then, it has been successfully used to treat different types of water. Biological treatment has been used in Europe since the early 1900s to filter surface water for drinking purposes and is receiving more worldwide interest. Biofiltration is common in wastewater treatment, greywater recycling, and aquaculture to increase water quality while minimizing water replacement.

A bed of media, a biofilter, is the material in which plants grow to form a biofilm layer. Biofiltration is commonly called a fixed-film process. The biofilm is formed by different microorganisms, such as yeast, bacteria, or fungi, macro-organisms such as insects’ larvae, protozoa, worms, and extracellular polymeric substances. The biofilm is slimy and muddy.

The water that is to be treated can be intermittently applied or continuously applied over the media, using upflow or downflow. Usually, a biofilter has two or three phases depending on the feeding strategy.

  • A solid-phase — media
  • A liquid phase — water
  • A gas-phase — air

Organic matter plus other water components are distributed into the biofilm as the treatment happens. Biofiltration processes are aerobic, which means that microorganisms require oxygen for metabolism. Oxygen is supplied to the biofilm with water flow. Aeration passively occurs by the natural flow of air or by forced air provided by blowers.

The activity of the microorganisms is a vital part of the performance process. The influencing factors are water composition, type of media, feeding strategy, biofilter hydraulic loading, age of the biofilm, temperature, aeration, etc.

Biofilters

Most biofilters use media such as river gravel, sand, crushed rock, or some form of plastic or ceramic material resembling small rings and beads.

Although biological filters have simple superficial structures, their internal workings, biology, and ecology are complex and variable. The process can maintain its performance or return to initial levels following a period of no flow, intense use, media backwash, toxic shocks, etc.

The biofilm protects microorganisms from demanding environmental conditions and retains the biomass even when conditions are not optimal for its growth. The advantages of the biofiltration process are:

  • Biofiltration allows the development of microorganisms with low growth rates because they are retained within the biofilm.
  • Biofilters are less subject to intermittent or variable loading or hydraulic shock.
  • Operational costs are usually lower.
  • The final treatment result is less influenced by biomass separation.
  • The attached biomass becomes more specialized at a given point because there is no biomass return.

Because filtration and biomass growth leads to an accumulation of matter in the filtering media, this process is subject to flow channeling and bio-clogging. Bio-clogging can be controlled depending on the type of application and the media used for microbial growth with chemical or physical methods.

Drinking Water

For drinking water, biological water treatment involves using naturally occurring microorganisms in the surface water, improving the water quality. Under optimum conditions, such as high oxygen content, the organisms break down the material in the water, improving its quality. Sand filters or carbon filters can be used to provide support for the microorganisms to grow. These systems effectively reduce diseases that are water-borne, improving water quality.

Bioremediation is Important

Clearly, bioremediation is very important for treating water.  Any time we can find natural ways to clean our earth’s water, we must use them.  Creating wetland filters, filter beds, filter swales, rain gardens, and floating plant islands are all ways that we as homeowners can use biological means to help clean the water on our properties.  While these homeowner solutions aren’t as complex or detailed as wastewater biofiltration systems, they use many of the same principles.

The Therapeutic Effects of Gardening

Natural spaces, such as gardens and national parks, have been linked to positive mental health effects. Exposure to nature has been associated with enhanced cognitive function, relaxation, mood, managing trauma, and healing of specific attention deficit disorder symptoms in children. Humans come from nature, and taking the time to get back to nature through gardening and landscaping can be very therapeutic. We all know that it feels good to be out in nature, but what are the therapeutic effects of gardening?

Gardening is Healthy

Gardening is a healthy hobby that anyone with a bit of space can develop and nurture. The early days of Covid-19 pandemic in the United States forced many to stay indoors and not be able to go to work, school, or even the market. The lockdowns led many Americans to pick up their rakes and spades, to engage in something that they may not have taken part in for a while. Many got outdoors and began gardening.

This epidemic’s silver lining has been the increased awareness of family and getting back to the basics of spending time at home with loved ones and nurturing our outdoor space through gardening. When was the last time in recent history that the entire family, both parents, and children, have had the pleasure of staying home and working in the garden together?

Our jobs and busy lifestyle keep many of us only dreaming of a few moments at home with family having a deep discussion about anything other than perhaps re-hashing the daily news. This pandemic has given time for deep thoughts and family projects.

For those who do not have a green space that they can actively garden in, perhaps taking part in a community garden or green space clean-up project can provide similar opportunities to get back to the earth and implement a bit of green therapy.

Working the Earth

For generations, gardeners have been tending their gardens and working the earth in a sort of rudimentary hobby or talent that gets handed down from old to young more out of the need for help than any dream of long-term continuity or a yearning for therapy.

Heading out to the garden expecting a therapeutic value is not the point. The therapeutic part comes from the labor that it takes to transform our land into the state that we want and the satisfaction that comes from the many future triumphs.

I believe that the therapeutic part comes in the stillness and toil that is needed when working with Mother Nature. While co-workers, friends, and family members might be persuaded or guided through force and aggression to bend to our desires, mother nature is not the same.

Mother nature makes the rules, and we all just work within her framework to see what we can accomplish. A hard day of toil and dirt under our fingernails may not be our goal; it is part of the therapy. Giving yourself physically to create the change you want to see is part of the therapy. There is no way around some physical exertion to get your garden into the shape you envision.

Two Different Things

While the therapy happens every time you are working in the yard, the deep calm and satisfaction likely occur when, over time, you finally see the fruits of your labor. Being in nature and working with nature are two different things. While sitting in a park, enjoying the sunshine, and listening to the birds can be relaxing and enjoyable, it is not the same as hiking through the mountains or turning a patch of lawn into a new flower bed. Part of the therapy is in the labor.

Whether one has a few plants on a windowsill, containers arranged on a deck, flower beds in the yard, or a vegetable garden, large or small, gardens have numerous benefits for families and family members. There are many ways that gardening is therapeutic, especially the process involved in landscaping the earth, planting the plants, and watching them grow. Some of the ways that gardening has been therapeutic are as follows:

Outdoor Gardening Helps Fight Disease.

Benefits From the Sun

Human beings share many similarities with plants, one among them is getting benefits from the sun.

While plants produce their food using sunlight, human skin uses sunlight to produce vitamin D in the body. The amount of vitamin D produced is dependent on the amount of sun exposure and the color of the skin—Vitamin D aids in numerous body functions, strengthening bones and the immune system. Low vitamin D levels expose humans to many unfavorable conditions such as dementia, fractures, and rickets. Of course, one must balance the benefits against the risks associated with overexposure to the sun, but a little sunshine in the garden has a therapeutic and healing effect on the body.

Reduces Stress

Reduction of physiological and psychological stress levels

Working and sitting in the garden can reduce our stress levels, which will reduce our adrenaline levels, leaving us feeling calm and relaxed. Working with plants can be an intuitive and nonverbal action that offers psychological peace and comfort, stimulating a human’s four senses in ways that many of us do not get in our daily lives. Gardening is an overall mood booster that reduces anxiety and depression levels.

Positive Outlook

Gardening tends to have a positive influence on people’s outlook on life. The hard work and graded accomplishments that one will experience in the garden will increase positive attitude, a sense of pride, and a motivation to do more to step further. Many long-time gardeners have always gone to the garden for relaxation and alone time, but it can also be a great family and friends event, showing the younger generation what it means to work the earth and produce a crop.

Meditative

Exposure to the natural environment restores a person’s ability to focus on tasks that require high concentration levels. Gardeners often speak of their time in the garden in the same way that others might speak of their yoga or meditation experiences.

Oftentimes a struggle for people in meditation and yoga is to calm and clear their minds in an effort to center themselves. Gardeners have long known that keeping your hands busy in the dirt is a sure way to clear your mind and allow it time to explore subjects that may get pushed aside in the hustle and bustle of everyday life.

Time to Reflect

Gardening allows time to reflect on the past and plan for the future, not just the future of the garden but the future of your life in general.

While we often feel that our efforts are going unnoticed or that we have wasted days of work where we just didn’t seem to get anything accomplished, a day in the garden always provides the satisfaction of looking back at our work and seeing the results. Also, there is nothing like a full day outside working the earth to invoke a deep and peaceful sleep later that evening.

Gardening is Exercise.

Think about all of the different poses, stretches, and work that goes into gardening. Standing, walking, crouching, kneeling, pushing, pulling, lifting, digging, etc. These are all the types of work that our bodies have been doing for generations prior to our world’s mechanization and computerization. These are the types of things that the settlers of this earth took part in every day out of necessity. There was no such thing as overstimulation or boredom when your entire existence was getting or growing enough food every day to feed the family.

The many bodyweight movements required for gardening closely resemble many of the exercises you might find happening at any fitness club. Exercises such as burpees, farmers carry, deadlift, squats, lunges, pushing, and pulling are all very similar to what a good day in the garden will provide for you. Not only are you taking part in these body movement exercises, which will build muscle and improve flexibility and balance, you are also burning a ton of calories. If more people were avid gardeners, we could cut down on our gym memberships.

Gardening Helps Manage Eco-Anxiety.

Many people feel a certain worry for and anxiousness about the current global pollution and decimation. If they sit down and think about it, most people understand that humans have been mistreating our planet for quite some time now, so they feel a bit of guilt and frustration due to their perceived inability to change anything. Well, gardening and landscaping as a whole can provide a significant step in the right direction when it comes to rebuilding our world.

The work that you are doing to improve your green space can help to improve our environment:

  • By planting plants and keeping our gardens lush with greenery, we help remove pollution from both the air and the soil.
  • Growing our food helps to minimize our carbon footprint.
  • Plants help to shade the earth and reduce evaporation.
  • Trees can help shade our houses and protect them from wind, lowering heating and cooling requirements.
  • Plants help to stabilize the soil and prevent erosion.
  • Our green space is the home for many animals.

The complex concept coined as eco- anxiety has many feeling helpless, but not the gardeners; the gardeners can rest easy, knowing that they have done their part to help our earth. It’s a pretty simple concept, actually; the greener our earth, the healthier it is, so your gardening efforts are definitely helping.

To maximize the amount that you are helping, you can do the following things:

  • Use only organics in your yard. Organics add to our soil diversity and reduce chemical pollution.
  • Layer organic mulches and composts rather than tilling.
  • Try to minimize your waste in all aspects of your life.
  • Save your rainwater to irrigate your plants.
  • Use hand tools rather than motorized tools.
  • Compost as much household waste as possible and use it to enhance your garden soil.
  • Look into designating your yard as a “Certified Wildlife Habitat.”
  • Encourage family, friends, and neighbors to garden.

Conclusion

It is a curious phenomenon that humans tend to avoid hard work and toil out of a perceived need to keep our bodies in a perpetual low-key and relaxed state. Somewhere along the line, we have been taught that hard work is bad and sloth is good. While staying at rest is always the easy choice, I don’t believe it is the best. Our bodies need to get out and move. We aren’t built to be still. While it may be hard to get started, working outside in the garden will prove to be very therapeutic overall, offering countless health benefits for you and your friends and family as well.

Whether digging, weeding, hauling, or plucking flowers, your physical strength, emotional wellbeing, and immune systems will reap the benefits. Gardening cultivates positive feelings of empowerment, connection, calmness, and appreciation for a beautifully landscaped garden. Whether the patch is tiny, medium, or huge, a raised bed, a window box, or a single garden pot, getting dirty and enjoying the natural setting is therapeutic in every sense. Gardening is the perfect way to heal therapeutically, regardless of age, time, space, or environment setting.

Get out there today and start your garden!

What is Hugelkultur?

Hugelkultur is a German word that stands for Hill or Mountain Culture. It is a horticultural technique in which the decaying wood and other decomposed plant material are used to build a mound that serves as a raised bed for planting a garden. Hugelkultur is earning fame among the home gardeners due to its low maintenance way of growing annual vegetables and flowers.

Wood is composed of varying concentrations of both primary nutrients (Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Potassium, and Phosphorus) and secondary (Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulphur) nutrients. Buried wood decomposes slowly and becomes a source of a continuous supply of nutrients (for more than twenty years). This practice is often adopted in permaculture and has a long history.

To create your very own Hugelkultur garden, you simply stack up various sizes of deadwood and cover it with soil.  You can use most types and sizes of wood, and you can sprinkle in any sort of organic matter that you have in your yard.  Leaves and grass clippings will only add to the decomposition of the wood.

Why are you hauling away or paying someone to haul away your leaves, twigs, and grass clippings when they could be used to grow your next garden?

History

As the word Hugelkultur belongs to the German language, you may have already guessed that it has been practiced in Germany for hundreds of years.

A comparison in plants’ growth rate grown on flatland and mound-culture was made. The results showed that the mound cultured plants were healthy (never expressed any nutrient deficiency and were never fertilized). The growth rate was fast, and the growing season was also extended due to the heat generation of buried wood.

Hugelkultur earned fame in Eastern Europe, Australia, America, etc., due to its remarkable benefits for both soil and plants. This is a principle permaculture technique followed by many gardeners and landscape designers.

The Science Behind Hugelkultur

“Sowing of seed to raise the seed again and use of wood to raise the wood again” is the logic behind Hugelkultur.

 Hugelkultur is a biological, principles-based process. It is a large-scale, inexpensive, soil and microorganisms-friendly compost blended mulch placed under the soil surface. This decomposing organic material provides a very long-lived source of soil fertility and creates a very rich bed of thriving microorganisms below the plants. Building a Hugelkultur bed will give any gardener a very unique and healthy area to plant into.

Best Types of WoodFor Hugelkultur:

  • Golden Chain Tree (Laburnum alpinum)
  • Alders (Alnus glutinosa)
  • Apple (Malus domestica)
  • Aspen (Populus tremuloides)
  • Birch (Betula pendula)
  • Black Cherry (Prunus serotins)
  • Cottonwood (Populus deltoids)
  • Camphor Tree (Cinnamomum camphora)
  • Cedar (Cedrus deodar)
  • Maple (Acer planatum, A. rubrum)
  • Oak (Quercus robur)
  • Poplar (Populus nigra)

Before burying the wood, it is good to make sure that it is aged and dead. Otherwise, they may start sprouting. Hardwood usually breaks down slowly, and the Hugel bed lasts longer. On the other hand, softwood breaks down quickly, releasing nutrients rapidly to support plant growth. It is recommended to place a layer of small woody branches at the top of the softwood layer and hardwood at the bottom to release nutrients first from the most easily decomposable wood. The decomposition process consumes a large amount of nitrogen first and then releases the nitrogen to compensate for the deficiency.

Unsuitable Wood For Hugelkultur:

  • Black locust (Robinia pseudoacasia)
  • Black walnut (Juglans nigra)
  • Old redwood, California redwood (Sequoia sempervirens)

These woods do not decompose easily or release toxic substances that may harm the above growing plants. Black walnut’s roots release “Juglone,” an organic toxic that stops other plants’ growth.

What kind of plants grows best in a Hugelkultur bed?

  • Onion, peppers, rosemary, lavender,
  • potato, sweet potatoes
  • gourds, cucurbits, pumpkins, melons, and strawberries
  •  are all plants that will thrive.  You can also do what they call pizza gardening.  You can efficiently grow all the ingredients used in pizza making, i.e., bell-peppers, onion, oregano, Italian parsley, basil, etc.
  •  Also, you can grow all sorts of ornamental flowers, shrubs, and trees.

According to Dave Whitinger (Executive Director at the National Gardening Association in Texas),  “I cannot think of anything that does not do well in a Hugelkultur bed.”

Requirements for the Construction of Hugelkultur

hugelkultur at zilker botanical garden
hugelkultur diagram

There are various ways of building the Hugel depending on the type of gardening you are planning.

As when creating any garden bed, you need to pay attention to the plants’ sunlight requirements that you are planning to grow.  Hugelkultur is excellent, but it won’t make up for having a sun-loving plant in the shade.

The second thing you will want to consider before constructing the wood mound is your plants’ average life span. If you are planting a kitchen garden and short-lived annual or biennial plants, you will likely want a smaller pile of logs comprised of smaller diameter wood that will decompose more quickly.  If you are planting slower-growing long-term perennials, shrubs, trees, and vines, you can use larger diameter logs that will take much longer to decompose and will fertilize for a good portion of the life of the plant. 

How it Works

Decomposition of wood utilizes high concentrations of nitrogen, and the soil becomes deficient in nitrogen. So, it would be best if you grew plants (winter vegetables, Onion, Gourds, potatoes, etc.) that need very little nitrogen for the first year or two so that you do not need to provide supplemental fertilization.

After partial to complete decomposition, the nitrogen deficiency will be compensated for by the decayed wood material. At this point, you can plant the more nitrogen-demanding plants.

It is recommended that you make long beds or round mounds with spaces in between so that you can easily tend the beds.  Your beds’ size and shape will depend significantly on the type and size of wood that you have available.

Benefits of Hugelkultur

Replication of a Natural Process

Hugelkultur is said to be a process that restores soil fertility in a very natural way. The wood’s slow decay makes it porous, just like a sponge. It stores water and creates plant nourishing nutrients which are later released to nurture your plants.

Increased Soil Aeration

During the decomposition process, the wood absorbs water and expands, creating air pockets. It creates a similar benefit to tillage without employing any mechanical process. Mechanical tilling of soils destroys a large number of beneficial microorganisms. Hugelkultur provides an environment where these earth-nurturing microorganisms thrive.

Increased Soil Fertility

For the most recent twenty-to thirty years, farmers and gardeners have been using synthetic fertilizers and mechanical tilling to get quick results. The synthetic fertilizers (Urea, DAP, SOP, MOP, NP, etc.) do not add anything to the soil. On the other hand, organic fertilizers, including compost, farmyard manure, leaf litter, poultry manure, wheat straw, etc., are slow-releasing substances that increase soil fertility and are environment friendly. Once buried and decomposing, these mounded beds of logs will not need any fertilizer or additional nutrients for more than twenty years.

Long-Lasting Plant Establishment

As compared with vegetables and annual plants, longer-lived plants such as grasses and shrubs are very well suited for this method.  Long-lasting plants with a rich, stable source of nutrients and soil amendment built into the bed. The steady release of nutrients supports continuous foliage development, and the aeration helps prevent soil compaction.

Food Security

Mound structures produce and hold more plants per square foot of land than flatland. The food security analysts state that the size of 1,076-2,153 sq. ft. would be enough for a single-family of four to six members. Hugelkultur serves as a long-term, efficient, space-saving source of food.

Soil Erosion Prevention

Hugelkultur also helps to prevent soil erosion.  The mounds help slow any water runoff and create a very porous area of ground for the excess water to soak into rather than runoff.  In an ordinary flat garden, water is allowed to run off, and tillage is required to keep the ground soft.

Disadvantages of Hugelkultur

  • Hugelkultur can require large amounts of wood if you are creating large beds.  This is great if you own a large property with large amounts of deadwood, but it may get costly if you need to purchase the wood.
  • Hugelkultur beds may become the home for rodents.  Piles of logs covered with ground might be perfect places for rodents to create a burrow.

Permaculture and Hugelkultur

In permaculture, we design the landscape to make it sustainable and efficient both in terms of energy and longevity. The same is the case with Hugelkultur; we put in our effort once and then get benefits for twenty to twenty-five years. Isn’t it a good idea to collect the pruned woods, dead trees, and broken twigs from your garden and use them in mound culturing? Of course, it is.

In this age of many commitments and busy schedules, everybody wants a type of gardening that is easy to maintain, produces the best quality product, and contributes to improving the environment.

Conclusion

Hugelkultur is a systematic step towards sustainable, successful landscaping. It is helping to raise crops by providing nutrients to them, and it is also fertilizing and enriching the soil with its excessive biomass at the same time. If you look at the advantages and disadvantages of Hugelkultur, you will find that its benefits far outweigh any disadvantages. With the amount of wood waste that we produce, we could feed the world and improve thousands of acres of land annually.

Overall, the benefits of Hugelkultur far outweigh the costs.  Find yourself a nice sunny area near the edge of your yard and begin to build your Hugelkultur garden.  You will find it to be a satisfying gardening experience that will pay dividends for years to come.

References:

Laffoon, M. (2016). A Quantitative Analysis of Hugelkultur and Its Potential Application on Karst Rocky Desertified Areas In China.

Ewald, A. (2011). Hugelkultur on the Prairie, or Learning from Our Mistakes. Communities, (153), 30.

Shebitz, D., Capozzi, S., & Albaum, J. P. (2010). Planting More than Just Veggies: Student-Created Plans for a Sustainable Urban Farm. Education, 2010.

János, S. A., Hayes, M., & Béla, B. THE SYSTEM, PROCESS AND STEPS OF PERMACULTURE DESIGN, DEMONSTRATING WITH A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE IN THE OPEN-AIR MUSEUM OF SZENNA.

Mireskandari, L. (2016). Urban Permaculture Educational Business. School Gardens, Permaculture And Business Design: An Exploration Of School Gardening Obstacles And Solutions.

Chalker-Scott, L. (2017). Hugelkultur: what is it, and should it be used in home gardens?

Holmgren, D. (2002). Permaculture. Principles and Pathways beyond Sustainability. Holmgren Design Services, Hepburn, Victoria.

Hemenway, T. (2015). The permaculture city: regenerative design for urban, suburban, and town resilience. Chelsea Green Publishing.

Muthu, N., Shanmugam, B., Gopalsamy, P., & Edwin, G. A. (2015). Implementing a holistic and student centered outreach programme towards integrated sustainable development of the campus—a case study of a Residential School from South India. In Integrating Sustainability Thinking in Science and Engineering Curricula (pp. 591-612). Springer, Cham.

PONTES, T. M., & ZANATTA, G. V. (2018). Horto medicinal do corpo humano: ação pedagógica interdisciplinar na Amazônia. Cadernos de Agroecologia, 13(1).

Create a Bee-Friendly Garden

bees in flowers

Proper plant choice, nesting aids, and a strict no chemical policy can make creating a bee-friendly garden easy. Here’s how anyone can attract nature’s pollinators to their yard!

Why is a Bee-Friendly Garden Important?

“Without bees, there is no harvest” – that’s the simplest way to summarize the importance of bees for the environment. Wild bees and honeybees perform a large part of plants’ pollination, thus ensuring abundant yields and contributing to plants’ spread.

Wild Bees

Wild bees differ significantly from honeybees in several ways.  Honeybees are the imported bees that we humans have been propagating for many generations.  We typically raise them in hives, but sometimes they leave the hive and create new hives in the wild.  This would make them feral honeybees, but still honeybees nonetheless.

Wild bees are a much more solitary creature that, unlike honeybees, do not live in a hive but may live in the ground or rock holes, plant stems, dry stone walls, or insect hotels.  There are a great many varieties of wild bees, and we know much less about them than we do about our friends, the honeybees.

Because the wild bees are solitary and widespread, they have a higher pollination performance than honeybees. As a result, many plants flower better when pollinated by the more efficient wild bees. Some plant species, such as tomatoes, are pollinated exclusively by wild species.

 In addition to helping our flowers bloom and our veggies grow, bees also serve as food for many other animals and are therefore crucial for the ecosystem.

How Does a Bee-Friendly Garden Help the Insects?

If the nearest wildflower meadow is very far from the bees’ nesting site, they may have trouble reaching it. Therefore, a bee-friendly garden should contain everything they need to live: It should offer them food, nesting sites, shelter, and winter quarters.

Just a few bee-friendly plants in the garden or on the balcony create such flower islands and help the bees find food. This allows the busy insects to easily fly from flower island to flower island, pollinating more plants and supporting the ecosystem.  Picture a poor little bee flying around Manhattan looking for a flower.  The more we can create little bee oases, the more bee-friendly our world is.

Undoubtedly, protecting the bees is essential for the earth and our well-being. Let’s look at what a bee-friendly garden looks like and which plants you should choose.

How to Make Your Garden Bee-Friendly

You can transform your plot into a bee garden with straightforward means. Even a small corner with bee-friendly plants is an excellent start for the insects. If you put in a little more effort, you can get even more out of your garden: bee-friendly perennials, herbs, and shrubs will quickly turn it into a bees’ paradise.

Drinking facilities are also necessary for bees. Fill up an empty bowl with water and place a few pebbles or marbles in it. This way, the bees can safely crawl in and out of it.  Better yet, create a water garden, fountain, or pond that your bees can visit.

No Chemicals

If you are looking for the one thing you can do to encourage bees and nature of all types to thrive in your yard, it is quite simple; DO NOT USE CHEMICALS! No chemical pesticides, no chemical herbicides, nothing.  I don’t care how many times the neighborhood mosquito spray guy or your landscaper tells you that the products they use are safe.  They are absolutely not safe!  Do not use them, ever!

Anyone who is applying these chemicals to your yard is trained by the people selling these chemicals to tell you what you want to hear so that you continue to buy more chemicals.  Their jobs depend on it.  Chemical corporations care about money, not bees.  They will hire any scientist who will tell them what they want to hear, so plenty of scientists are available to lie to us.

Build Nesting Houses for Wild Bees

To attract wild bees to your garden, you can build so-called insect hotels – Nesting houses. They offer all sorts of bees a nice place to nest and hibernate.

You can buy such a “bee hotel” or build one yourself. If you want to build one, all you need is some wood.  Build a wooden structure of any shape or size with lots of tiny holes for the bees to crawl into.

It is best to use hardwoods such as beech or oak since softwoods can easily crack and swell in damp conditions. You should also avoid resinous wood at all costs, as the resin can be deadly to insects.

Use holey wood or drill holes in the wood 3 mm to 10 mm in diameter and about 2.5 inches deep. Make sure to polish the edges of the holes so that the bees don’t harm their wings.

Finally, make it birdproof so that the birds don’t come and feast on your bees.  A piece of wire mesh with holes large enough for bees of all sizes but too small for a bird to enter will work just fine.

Bee-Friendly Plants

When looking for bee-friendly garden plants, the first thing you should look for is native varieties. Bees are used to these and have learned to adapt to them. Native weeds such as Dandelions, Creeping charlie, and Beebalm are excellent nectar sources for bees and other insects such as butterflies, beetles, and moths.

Also, when choosing a plant, avoid double flower plants. These lush flowers look beautiful but make it difficult for approaching bees to find food: they have to fight through numerous petals before reaching the stamens with little to no nectar or pollen. Therefore, these flowers are not very helpful for the bees.

An easy way to have bee-friendly flowers in the garden is to use seed mixes. However, many mixes include plants from the Mediterranean or other non-native regions. The flowers are usually quite suitable for insects, but regional plants are still a better choice for native wild bees. Ideally, plant mixtures that are ideal for the insects in your area. You can obtain such plant mixtures in your local nursery or other agricultural stores.

35 Bee-friendly flowers and perennials:

  • Anise hyssop/Agastache foeniculum
  • Astilbe, false spirea/Astilbe spp.
  • Bee balm/Monarda spp.
  • Bellflower/Campanula spp.
  • Black-eyed Susan, coneflower/Rudbeckia spp.
  • Blazing star/Liatris spicata
  • Butterfly bush/Buddleja or Buddleia spp.
  • Catmint/Nepeta spp.
  • Chrysanthemum (open types)/Chrysanthemum
  • Clematis/Clematis spp.
  • Common yarrow/Achillea millefolium
  • Coral bells/Heuchera spp.
  • Cornflower/Centaurea spp.
  • Fennel/Foeniculum vulgare
  • Foxglove or beardtongues/Penstemon spp.
  • Garden speedwell/Veronica longifolia
  • Globe thistle/Echinops ritro
  • Hosta/Hosta spp.
  • Hyssop (naturalized in North America)/Hyssopus officinalis
  • Large-leaved aster/Eurybia macrophylla
  • Lavender/Lavandula
  • Lupine/Lupinus spp.
  • Mints/Mentha spp.
  • Oregano/Origanum vulgare
  • Pentas/Pentas spp.
  • Peony/Paeonia spp.
  • Pincushion flower/Scabiosa caucasica
  • Rosemary/Rosmarinus officinalis
  • Russian sage/Perovskia atriplicifolia
  • Sea holly/Eryngium maritimum
  • Stokes aster/Stokesia laevis
  • Sunflower/Helianthus
  • Swamp milkweed/Asclepias incarnata
  • Sweet alyssum/Lobularia maritima
  • Thyme/Thymus spp.

 Be Friendly to the Bees!

It’s no news that bees are in trouble.  Some varieties have been declining steadily for a long time.  Agriculture specializing in monocultures deprives bees of their habitat and food base.  Without bees doing a large part of the pollination, we would not have a functioning ecosystem.

We can all contribute to saving the bees by merely making our backyards a bit more bee-friendly.

A bee-friendly garden offers safe nesting, shelter, water sources, and a wide variety of food. This means an area free of deadly chemicals.  It’s not all about the bees; it’s about us.  We need to care for our earth, and these tiny little buzzing pollinators are a crucial part of our world.  Plant some pretty flowers, make your yard beautiful and help the bees.